China of the Ming and early Manchus

Over the course of these four centuries, society witnesses a twofold change.At the end of the 16th century, after an initial agricultural phase , some elements of capitalism emerge,hampered by the bureaucratic apparatus. The foundation of the Ming dynasty , of peasant origin, proceeds to reconquer the territories invaded by the Mongols and ensures their prosperity through a policy of major public works ( irrigation, reforestation, dams). At the same time , a rigid system of population framing is applied , accompanied by massive movements of people. The reorganization of the territory will bear fruit : China, once again rich, extends as far as Mongolia, Manchuria and the newly conquered Vietnam. The splendor of the Ming is made known by a series of important maritime expeditions, with both diplomatic and commercial objectives. The oceans are plied by Chinese junks . Expansion on the mats remains ephemeral : soon the diseffection of power vis-à-vis the fleet leaves the field open to the extortion of Japanese pirates, whose raids become more and more daring, while the Europeans discreetly enter the fray, first with the Portuguese, then to a greater extent with the Dutch. Paradoxically , the considerable wealth of the Chinese empire undermines its autocratic and agrarian foundations ; industrial development threatens its privileges and state bureaucracy . The 16th century, besides marking the development of a merchant and urban economy, confirms , within this the pre-eminence of the Chang Jiang region. Industrial crops ( cotton, tea) develop here while rice, the main food crop, moves to the southern regions ( Fujiang, Guangzhou), which become China’s breadbasket. The impoverishment of the contandins brought about by the restoration of the great estates and the discontent of the city dwellers, stifled by the state orders, eventually cause unrest, which together with the external Manchu threat, will eventually get the Dynasty right.
However , the elites will agree to serve the new masters only on the condition that the Manchu princes adhere to the values of Confucianism and restore the mandarinate system . The Manchus give China immense territory and an efficient war machine : the Qing are the real masters of the steppe . Protected by vast buffer regions and secure within its borders, China experienced great prosperity to which a remarkablevalorization of soils and the introduction of new crops from the Americas ( peanuts, sweet potatoes, and corn) contributed . Such prosperity is not, however, without unintended consequences . The first is population growth: at first positive, it will later prove to be a handicap by the time traditional society has reached the threshold of an increase imposed by the pre-industrial mode of production. The second is ideological: the euphoria caused by wealth fossilizes institutions , and renders cadres incapable of promoting any reform. Starting from the end of the 18th century , a number of threats are emerging on the borders : Russian and Japanese expansion to the north , increase in the power of Western countries on the maritime side , just at the time when the regime is facing a series of social crises .